Monday 30 November 2009

News Agenda- A brief overview of what has been covered so far.

News agenda is basically an exploration into what the news is, its sources and its intended audiences.
Generally, it seems to be a common conception that journalists have a love-hate relationship with audiences. They do of course have some level of respect for their audience because they make the news interesting and ensure that all information presented to the public is one hundred per cent accurate. However, there is perhaps little respect for audience interaction. The public, for the most part, will not view a news story the same way a journalist will.
We are all, I assume, fully aware that the internet is becoming increasingly damaging to the newspaper business. Newspapers now all have their own websites, which are easy to navigate and the reader can choose which stories to focus in on, and of course refer back to archived stories. With the internet thriving, it is becoming tougher to find an audience and keep it, which is why media organisations now spend millions of pounds each year on audience research. The internet even overtook television in the advertising revenue this year, yet further proof of its ever growing dominance as a media outlet.
Looking at audience, we have also identified how social grade is calculated. It is done on an ABC1/C2DE demographic as follows.
A- Upper middle class, those working in at higher managerial or professional level.
B- Middle class, those working at an intermediate managerial or administrative level.
C1- Lower middle class, those working at a supervisory level, clerical work or junior management.
C2- Skilled working class, for example skilled manual workers.
D- Working class, this covers semi or unskilled manual workers.
E- On the lowest levels of sustenance, state pensioners, widows. Causal or lowest grade workers.
Newspapers will have an intended audience in mind when they publish their stories and during news agenda lectures we analyse which demographic category each paper is aimed at.
Another topic we have covered is news sources. When asked to list twenty sources I must admit I struggled but upon discussing this with the class, we managed to collectively come up with a list of around thirty. Here are just ten examples of news sources:
*The Police, for example at press conferences, statement releases, press officers.
*Courts
*Eye Witnesses, brilliant for quotes.
*NHS, again press releases etc.
*National Statistics Office
*Unions, good for news on work issues and strikes.
*Local councils
*Employees/ Whistleblowers
*Victims of crime
*Politicians/ Government
Each of the above could prove to be an important source when investigating or writing a story and it is a good idea to start a contacts book. Anyone who has been, or could prove to be useful in the future should be stored in your contacts book. Some may say it is an essential tool in the journalism industry.
We have also looked at local news. Local news is all about where we physically spend our day, the area around our home or workplace. News stories can be found in and around your local area, for example, stories about events and festivals, the latest court cases and council meetings. It is about national stories which journalists can localise and make relevant. It is important to know your local area when doing this type of reporting. You should know your local MP, hospitals, universities, the biggest employer in the area and its main media outlets. The better you know your local area, the better your chance of developing a good news story.

Media Law- Qualified Privilege.

Qualified privilege is the third defence against libel following on from justification and fair comment. It can be used as a defence if it is considered that the information should be published in public interest.
Qualified privilege can be divided into two categories; Statutory and Common Law.
Statutory qualified privilege predominantly covers reporting in court and Parliament. A defamatory statement can be reported by a journalist without fear of being sued for libel. Of course, the report must be fair and accurate and free of malice, otherwise the defence for QP is lost. Statutory QP also covers public meetings, council meetings and police statements.
Common law QP is where privilege is applicable in certain circumstances. The example that McNae's Essential Law for Journalists gives is that of asking for an employment reference. The former employer cannot be sued for libel for what they say, even if untrue, as long as it was not motivated by malice. Common law QP is usually worked on by a case by case basis.
Another defence worth looking into is the Reynolds Defence. It is a ten point test which courts must take into consideration if a newspaper or journalist wishes to use QP as a defence against libel. The Guardian online published a highly informative article regarding The Reynolds Defence which may be of interest.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/feb/03/pressandpublishing.law

Details of the ten point test can be found on University of Winchester Media Law lecture notes, the link can be found below.


http://journalism.winchester.ac.uk/?page=228

News Agenda. BBC Radio 4 and The Daily Echo.

Following the current practical journalism sessions on news agenda, I was assigned to follow The Daily Echo and BBC Radio 4 to analyse their news agenda and take a more in depth look in how they choose to present the news to the general public.
BBC Radio 4
BBC Radio 4 describes themselves on their website as: ‘’A station for anyone interested in intelligent speech. Its schedule is packed with the most insightful journalism, the wittiest comedy, the most fascinating features and the most compelling drama and readings anywhere in UK radio.’’
BBC Radio 4 replaced BBC Home Service in 1967. It is currently run by Mark Damazer. He took over from Helen Boaden, who now heads BBC News. Radio 4 has won Sony Radio Academy Awards for UK Radio Station of the year in 2003, 2004 and 2008.
Radio 4 listening accounts for 12.4 % of the radio market, with 10.22 million people listening for at least fifteen minutes each week.
The station is targeting an older audience, there is certainly nothing that would interest young children and it is unlikely it would be appealing to most teenagers. The shows broadcasted are based on the following subjects; art, comedy, discussions, documentaries, drama, history, money, news, politics, readings, religion and science. I found an article on The Telegraph’s website, titled ‘Now I know the clock’s ticking, I’ve started listening to Radio 4.’ It appears to be a common conception that Radio 4 is aimed at older listeners, as the article explores in a light-hearted fashion the indicators of getting old and listening to Radio 4 was noted as a key indicator. Another article I sourced on The Evening Standard’s website reported on Radio 4’s new tactic to draw in a younger audience, b y broadcasting their show from three major universities across the UK. Radio 4 is clearly aware of their current audience being in the age bracket of 40 years and over. The links to both articles are listed below.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/bryonygordon/6470100/Now-I-know-the-clocks-ticking-Ive-started-listening-to-Radio-4.html

http://www.thisisderbyshire.co.uk/chellaston/Just-minute-aren-t-stars-Radio-4-panel-student-union-bar/article-1428960-detail/article.html

Looking at demographic audience categories, Radio 4 is aimed at an ABC1 demographic. It seems to be a universal concept that Radio 4 is aimed at those of a higher social status. I found a Daily Mail article relating to this, in which Mark Damazer states that Radio 4 is not just ‘for posh people in the south of England. ‘ The Daily Mail also quoted that ‘he (Mark Damazer) added, that Radio 4 listeners were a diverse group united only in wanting intelligence, clever ideas and wit.’ Surely this statement in itself clearly shows the demographic category Radio 4 wish to reach with their programmes. The Daily Mail article can be found via the link below.

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-512818/Its-okay-middle-class-says-Radio-4-boss.html

There are various news bulletins on Radio 4 throughout the day. The midnight news follows national and international affairs and follows what I would think to be a typical news format. Beginning with a brief overview of the headlines, each story is then covered in more detail. There are cuts to specific topical correspondents for further coverage and also use quotes from members of the public. There is very little, if any, focus on entertainment news, politics and world affairs are the priority. A review of the daily papers is also included, with a look at the front page stories. There is also sports coverage in brief and an overview on the currency markets. This is then followed by the weather, the bulletin lasting a total of 30 minutes.
Another daily bulletin is ‘News Briefing’ which is aired at 5.30am every morning after the shipping bulletin and is usually presented by Rory Morrison. This is possibly aimed at those commuting to work early in the morning. Again this follows a typical news format, with a brief overview of the headlines which are then covered in more detail. The weather is read halfway through the bulletin and is followed by a look at the daily papers, with headlines read from Daily Express, Daily Mail, The Guardian, The Sun, The Daily Mirror, The Times, The Telegraph and some international papers. Following on from this, there is business news with Nick Cosgrove, followed by Sport. To finish the bulletin is a summary of the news to be covered more in depth throughout the day. Each story in the News Briefing is, as the title suggests, kept short and to the point and again does not focus on entertainment news but aims for a more formal angle, which is probably in keeping with the target age range who may not be interested in the current X-Factor scandals. The bulletin lasts for a total of 13 minutes and is clearly intended as a concise overview of the important headlines of the day.
Generally I feel the news prioritised on Radio 4 reflects the audience that listen to it. There is a focus on political affairs and heavy topics, with very little emphasis on entertainment or celebrity news as it is unlikely to interest the majority of listeners. Any news of a more light-hearted nature is usually read out last.

The Daily Echo
The Daily Echo was first published in August 1888. It is currently owned by Newsquest, the second largest publisher of local newspapers in the UK. The Daily Echo was named Newspaper of the Year 2009 at the EDF Energy South East and London Media Awards.
The Daily Echo has a fairly balanced ratio of male to female readers, with 51% of readers being male and 49% female. The Daily Echo is also read by a diverse age range of readers, as shown by the figures below.
15- 24 years: 16%
25-34 years: 16%
35-44 years: 18%
45-54 years: 15%
55-64 years: 16%
65 and over: 19%
These figures show that The Daily Echo is read by those of all ages. This could be attributed to the fact that it is a local paper and therefore the stories reported will feature local people, school events, latest council updates, which will of course attract a vast age group. Of course people will also be interested in seeing if anyone they know is in the paper.
The Daily Echo displays a wide range of advertisements in their paper, from travel to local shows. The costs of advertising vary depending on the day the advert is to be printed and size of advert. Thursday and Friday are peak advertisement days, so the cost will be higher. A basic one column advert starts at £6.88 on off peak days. As a regional newspaper, there are of course many local advertisements, from selling cars, dating adverts, family announcements and home services. This is certainly not something you would find in a national newspaper, as the adverts would cover a much more universal range of products. Clearly aware of their audience, The Daily Echo advertises mainly local companies.
Looking at the front cover of The Echo, there is a ‘Win Free Sex’ header below the name of the paper which is commonly associated with tabloid newspapers. However there is rarely any sexual content, there is more of a focus on competitions, perhaps to be more appealing to a family audience. The front page typically has a large bold headline relating to the latest regional news and some form of advertising along the bottom.
Some of the main news features I have identified in The Daily Echo include ‘News Round-Up,’ which is featured on a number of pages throughout and consists of short concise news stories. ‘Civic News,’ which covers news from local authorities. ‘Your Views,’ a chance for readers to write in and give their views, as the title suggests. ‘Neighbourhood News,’ again the title is self explanatory, readers send in any local news. Each day there is also a different supplement with the paper, perhaps to appeal to a broader audience.
Generally I think that the news reported in The Echo gives a sense of community, it is reporting stories directly related to those in the region in which it circulates. Its political standing appears neutral because it does not report on current political affairs, therefore it can be read by a broad audience and the figures show that it is read by a large cross section of age groups. The Daily Echo knows its audience and presents the news stories accordingly.

Sources
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/
http://www.rajar.co.uk/
Daily Echo reader ages and figures provided by The Daily Echo office in Southampton
Advertising costs for Daily Echo provided by The Daily Echo’s advertising department in Southampton

Wednesday 11 November 2009

HCJ. Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract, Book One

Jean Jacques Rousseau was born 28th June 1712 and died 2nd July 1778. He was a major French philosopher and writer. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution and the development of modern political and educational thought.

The Social Contract (1762) explores a range of theories which try to explain the ways in which people form states and maintain social order. Rousseau speaks of the best way to set up a political community, which helped inspire political reform in Europe, especially in France. The Social Contract also tries to determine whether there can ever be a legitimate political authority.

This is merely my interpretation of some of the points Rousseau made in the Social Contract.
• ‘I feel that, however feeble the influence my voice can have on public affairs, the right of voting on them makes it my duty to study them.’ Rousseau seems to believe that if an issue is affecting him, others will be affected too and as he is voting politically, he has a right to speak up about issue influencing the country at the time.
Subject of the first book.
• ‘Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains.’ This refers to the restrictions within society.
• Man created rules, we have therefore restricted ourselves, and it has nothing to do with nature. If we break free of these rules, it is justifiable since we created them.
The First Societies: Rousseau claims that only the natural society is family. As soon as a child’s need/ dependency on the parent ceases then the natural bond dissolves.
• If the child and parent s remain united, it is not natural but through choice and the bond is maintained through convention.
• Man becomes his own master. Rousseau suggests everyone is completely in control of their own lives. Independence and free thinking.
• Rousseau thinks society is divided into sections, each with its own leader. ‘The human species is divided into so many herds of cattle, each with its ruler, who keeps guard over them for the purpose of devouring them.’ Rousseau implies that the leaders are only after power, they are not governing for order or what is best for the people.
• Rousseau refers to Aristotle, ‘men are by no means equal naturally, but that some are born for slavery and others for domination.’ Suggests we have no choice in who we are or what we become but that it is all presupposed.
• Rousseau agreed with Aristotle but thought he took effect for cause.
• ‘Every man born in slavery is born for slavery.’ Rousseau appears to discount human ambition and motivation for change. No account of affects of events in a person’s life and how it may influence what they become and whether they have a choice in what they become.
The Right of the Strongest: Rousseau states that the strongest does not always become ‘master.’ If someone is to become a leader they must turn strength into right and obedience into duty.
• Rousseau questions whether ‘right’ actually exists.
• If we are not forced to obey, then we are not obliged to do so. Clearly the word ‘right’ adds nothing to force, in this connection it means absolutely nothing.
• Rousseau seems to imply force is the way to power. If nobody forced society to obey rules, nobody would feel obliged to obey them. Therefore if those in power are only there by force, what makes the rules they put in place ‘right?’
• ‘All power comes from God.’ If this is so, how is it chosen who has power in society?
• ‘Force does not create right, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimate powers.’ But what defines legitimate powers?
Slavery: ‘Since no man has a natural authority over his fellow, and force creates no right, we must conclude that conventions form the basis of all legitimate authority among men.’
• Rousseau questions who would willingly give themselves to serve another.
• ‘War is constituted by a relation between things not between persons...’ Is this attitude still applicable today? Could we justify recent wars with that reasoning and say that relationships between people are not the cause but the ‘things’ we want?
• ‘The words ‘slave’ and ‘right’ contradict each other.’ Rousseau does not seem to believe there is equality between men, which could be questioning towards men in power. Does Rousseau agree with the concept of slavery?
• Rousseau sees a man in power ruling over other individuals in the same way as a master controlling a slave.
• Rousseau presupposes unanimity. The minority would not be able to overrule the majority.
The Social Compact: The human race must constantly evolve in order to survive. Power of resistance- ‘must be greater than the resources at the disposal of each individual for his maintenance in that state.’
• We need some form of unity in order to survive.
• Force and liberty of each man are the chief instruments of his self preservation.
• Is freedom within society possible?
• Each individual has to take complete responsibility for themselves. ‘Each man, in giving himself to all, gives himself to nobody.’
• ‘Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.’ Common identity from unity.
The Sovereign: The sovereign must abide by its own rules or it will eventually self annihilate, which can of course create nothing.
• Once a form of unity has been created, one person in that unit cannot offend another without offending the whole unit. It is a somewhat extreme view of unity, leaving no room for personal opinion of the individual.
• In regards to the above, perhaps this can be relevant to political parties, as each party has to support its members and they all hold the same view and wish for the same outcome.
• ‘Each individual, as a man, may have a particular will contrary or dissimilar to the general will which he has as a citizen.’ We will always have individual needs and our own motivations no matter which body of society we form a part of.
• ‘Whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be compelled to do so by the whole body.’ Social pressure.
• Rousseau says conformity forces a man to be free, but surely by conforming to the general will, it is the opposite of freedom if the individual in fact holds an opposing view.
• Perhaps Rousseau views many things on a purely political basis; the divides he speaks of within society could be representative of differing political views. This makes much of what he says applicable to modern day society.
The Civil State: Rousseau speaks of the passage from ‘the state of nature to the civil state.’ Justice instead of instinct, actions are now paired with morality. Consults reason before inclination.
• Mental stimulation means ideas and thoughts can be continuously extended.
• ‘What a man loses by the social contract is his natural liberty and the proprietorship of all he possesses.’ Rousseau thinks that although we have lost some natural forms of freedom, we have gained civil rights.
Real Property: Rousseau speaks of the rights of the first occupier and how these rights must be gained.
• Does anybody really have the right to own a property since nature provided the land for us all?
• ‘The whole social system should rest, i.e. that, instead of destroying natural inequality... for such physical inequality... men, who may be unequal in strength or intelligence, become every one equal by convention and legal right.’ Rousseau focuses on the idea of equality/inequality throughout book one. It appears there is no natural equality, only that created by man through the creation of rules.

Tuesday 3 November 2009

HCJ. Joseph Addison: The Spectator

What do the essays reveal about civil society and the reading public of the restoration age?
The Spectator
*Addison begins by speaking of his own writing style, he says he sometimes writes with ‘regularity and method’ and other times with no particular order.
*When Addison himself read a work which had been written without method, he envisioned himself as being in a wood surrounded by ‘noble objects,’ confusion and disorder.
*When reading methodical discourse, he saw it as an ordered plantation, able to comprehend each idea separately.
*Addison seemed to believe that if you could envisage the entire concept, you gain a better understanding of it, which will remain in the memory.
*He stated that irregularity and want of method are only supportable in men of great learning or genius. This perhaps implies that the general public would not understand such ordered styles of writing.
*Addison thought that ideas should be set out in a logical order before being presented to the reader.
*Addison commented on the fact that when writing, further thoughts would be continuous, so putting them in order is vital if they are to be understood.
*’Method is of advantage to work.’ Both to the reader and the writer.
*Addison also pointed out that reading a methodical piece of writing is more enjoyable to the reader and therefore concepts are much more likely to be retained.
*’There is not one dispute in ten which is managed in those school of politics, where, after the first three sentences, the question is not entirely lost.’ Implying that discourse cannot be ordered in the same way as writing, it is more difficult to stay on topic.
*A man who strays from the topic in an argument may not always be superior.
*Overall Addison seemed to believe that unless an author set out the ideas of their writing in a clear and logical fashion, the reader would not be able to understand or enjoy the desired concepts. It is all very well to be a free thinker but if these thoughts stray from the original topic then the audience is lost.
*Addison implied that the reader cannot perhaps interpret the ideas for themselves and does not credit the public with the ability to think for themselves on another person’s topic.

The Royal Exchange
*The Royal Exchange was a building in London where products were traded.
*During the restoration there was a commercial revolution concerning North America.
*It is not certain whether Addison’s tone in the Royal Exchange is sarcasm or genuine enthusiasm.
*’Factors in the trading world are what ambassadors are in the polite world.’ Addison saw the trading world as different to ‘normal’ society, creating a sense of divide.
*Addison seems fascinated by the mix of ethnicities, sense of anonymity when there.
*Addison viewed it all as a sort of entertainment, seeing the variety of cultures was unusual.
*’I am wonderfully delighted to see such a body of men thriving in their own private fortunes... raising estates for their own families.’ Addison appears to admire the traders work and the fact they are providing for themselves.
*Addison also mentioned the nationalities being united by one interest. Is this naivety, sarcasm or a genuine observation?
*Addison also said that countries need to work together to produce certain products. We need other countries in order to survive and make the culture more vibrant. On this note Addison seemed welcoming to trade from other countries.
*’For these reasons, there are not more useful members in a commonwealth then merchants.’ This is perhaps a different view than that of today, we may prioritise MPs etc. This perhaps implies merchants were better respected at this time, unless this view is more specific to Addison.
*’Trade has given us an additional empire.’