Thursday 18 November 2010

The Intellectuals and The Masses- John Carey

John Carey writes about how early twentieth-century intellectuals imagined the 'masses' as unnecessary sub-humans who were drugged by popular culture and should be annihilated. Exposing the detest for the masses from well known ‘intellectuals’ such as George Bernard Shaw, Ezra Pound, D. H. Lawrence, E. M. Forster, Virginia Woolf, H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, W. B. Yeats along with others, he relates this to the Nietzschean cult.

Part 1. Themes.
The Revolt of the Masses
•Spanish Philosopher Jose Ortega y Gasset published a book called ‘The Revolt of the Masses’ in 1930. He wrote about the population explosion in Europe between the 19th and 20th Century. Europe had produced ‘a gigantic mass of humanity, which launched like a torrent over the historic area.’
•H.G. Wells also referred to the population growth with dismay. ‘The extravagant swarm of new births [are] the essential disaster of the nineteenth century.’
•According to Ortega, the population expansion had various consequences. 1) Overcrowding. 2) Intrusion. 3) The dictatorship of the mass.
•Ortega’s thinking is similar to that of Nietzsche, especially Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, who despised the ‘rabble.’
•‘We should see Nietzsche as one of the earliest products of mass culture. That is to say, mass culture generated Nietzsche in opposition to itself, as its antagonist.’
•Nietzsche’s view of the mass was shared by most of the founders of modern European culture. Ibsen, Flaubert, Knut Hamsun, Thomas Mann, Hermann and Gide all shared a similar view on the despicability of the masses.
•Each European country was shaped differently in its hatred for the masses.
•Between the 19th and 20th century, a literate public had come into being. The newspaper became aimed at the masses, with Alfred Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe) pioneering this post-Education Act.
•The popular newspaper created an alternative culture, which ‘bypassed the intellectual and made him redundant.’ Northcliffe encouraged human interest stories, extending the typical themes beyond business and politics.
•European intellectuals rejected newspapers, believing the rabble ‘vomit their bile and call it a newspaper.’
•Some male intellectuals despised newspapers as they encouraged women. Northcliffe considered women a worthy audience and printed papers specifically aimed at women.
•Although many intellectuals of the time were showing contempt for the masses and newspapers, Arthur Conan Doyle instead created Sherlock Holmes, ‘a comforting version of the intellectual for mass consumption.’ Holmes, like Nietzsche is a product of mass culture. Holmes purpose being ‘to disperse the fears of overwhelming anonymity that the urban mass brought.’
•Sherlock Holmes used newspapers as a resource in his investigations, they are his ally. This heavily contradicts with the intellectuals’ horror at newspapers. This marked a fault line along which English culture was dividing.
•F. R Leavis believed in this divide in culture. The mass media- radio, film, Northcliffe’s newspapers, brought about ‘an overthrow of standards.’
•T.S Eliot writes in The Waste Land; ‘A crowd flowed over London Bridge so many, I had not thought death had undone so many.’ The implication seems to be that the crowds of people in London are not really alive, which corresponds to Nietzsche’s claim that life in the modern state is in fact, slow suicide.
•The idea that mass existence was not really living quickly became a popular idea, taken on by the likes of Orwell and D. H. Lawrence. Nietzsche and Lawrence both believe in the annihilation of those not worthy to live, although neither specifies how this annihilation should be done.
•Eugenics Education Society founded in 1907, wanted a more selective way of eliminating the masses. They hoped to discourage or prevent the increase of inferior breeds. W. B. Yeats joined the Society and Shaw and Aldous Huxley were sympathetic. Again, Nietzsche began this train of thought. In The Will To Power, he considers the establishment of ‘international racial unions,’ whose task would be to produce a superior race.
•T. S Eliot believed that in our bid to educate everyone, standards are lowered. He also believed that there were too many book published, another evil effect of democracy.
•Another evil of democracy is the expansion of colleges and universities, Eliot believed that the number of people receiving higher education should be severely cut.
•Aldous Huxley said on the spread of education; ‘Universal education has created an immense class of what I may call the New Stupid.’ Conan Doyle’s Holmes was again a contrast to this, as the books portrayed a positive view on education.
•The intellectuals could not of course prevent the masses from becoming literate but what they could do was produce literature that was too difficult for them to understand. The early twentieth century saw a conscious effort from the European intelligentsia to exclude the masses from culture. In England this movement was known as modernism. Literature and visual arts were revolutionized.
•Ortega thought that the function of modern art was to divide the public into two classes.
•Modern art, by demonstrating that men are not equal, brings historical development.
•One of the only twentieth century fictional character who stands out from the usual dreary representatives of mass men and women is Leopold Bloom, from James Joyce’s Ulysses. Bloom is not totally uncultured, but he is certainly no literary intellectual. Are mass men redeemed in Ulysses?
•Another despised symbol of mass culture from the intellectuals’ perspective was tinned food. ‘… it offends against what the intellectual designates as nature: it is mechanical and soulless.’

Rewriting the Masses
•The ‘mass’ is an imaginary construct.
•Ortega thought mass men could be marked out by the fact that they are unambitious and common, he also repeatedly refers to the brutality of the mass.
•Thomas Hardy spoke of the fear he felt being in such close proximity to the masses. Reimagining the mass and visualising how to dominate it was a vital component of mental stability according to Nietzsche. The essential function being to deprive the mass of their human status.
•Taking away the human status from the mass could also be done by converting them into scientific specimens (1930s Mass Observation). Example: Hitler’s scientific method of elimination Jews.
•Gustave Le Bon invented a new branch of science concerning investigating the mass. According to Le Bon ‘crowds are mentally inferior and intent on destruction.’ The modern era has been taken over by the masses.
•Freud agreed with many of Le Bon’s ideas and also extended his ideas. He associated the mass with evil.
•Elias Canetti- seen to be the most cited commentator on the mass, stands with the scientific perspective from Freud to Le Bon. Although his ideas of the mass and crowds are similar to Le Bon’s, he also saw the mass as the salvation of mankind. In a crowd, an individual can escape.
•The role of the camera and photography changed the world of art and literature. Photography was becoming easily accessible to everyone.
•Foster and Lawrence both longed for a mass untouched by modern industrial civilisation.
•Graham Greene singles out the unemployed as cause for concern. Their function is merely to be observed by the intellectuals.
•Wells was a key spokesman of the left. He finds difficulty in confronting the mass. His upbringing affected his idea and grasp of classes. Those who brought him up brainwashed him into his prejudices against working class.

The Suburbs and the Clerks
•The project of rewriting the masses was coloured by various historical factors. The spread of suburbs around major population centres and the increase in the number of white collar workers were influential.
•Suburban sprawl is a key theme in the writing of Edith Nesbit, whose children’s books helped fashion the minds of several generations. The urbanisation was not aesthetically pleasing and ruined the countryside.
•Shaw said ‘The great majority of men have no right to existence, but are a misfortune to higher men.’ This follows on from much of what Nietzsche believed.
•Clerks were rejected by intellectuals. John Betjeman and Stevie Smith wrote about this rejection of the clerks and suburbs, finding an eccentric voice by colonising abandoned territory.
•Stevie Smith adopted a more poetic voice when writing, avoiding the dignity and authority that males appropriated.

Natural Aristocrats
•Intellectuals generated an idea of natural aristocracy, consisting of intellectuals.
•Suggestions included the idea that there ought to be a secret knowledge which only intellectuals could possess, or the idea of hereditary aristocracy.
•Nietzsche asserts that men are not equal. It is a mistake to think that they are and this is to blame for the degeneracy of Europe. His beliefs defied Christian beliefs.
•Oscar Wilde says; ‘Aesthetics are higher than ethics.’ Metaphors of high and low culture
•Dismissal of logic and acceptance of self contradiction.
•Lawrence rejected logic, allowing him to keep hold of the idea of natural aristocracy.
•Lawrence was not like Nietzsche, the range and subtlety of his imagination went far beyond Nietzsce.
•How do we recognise natural aristocrats? Any aristocratic theory must take into account the supposed superiority of the natural aristocrats.
•What role does religion play? Greene was a Catholic whilst Nietzsche rejected Christian ideals and beliefs; however intellectuals have a tendency to invoke God when they are driven to justify their beliefs. Greene is unsure whether God exists but remains a distinguished believer.

Case Studies
George Gissing- ‘The earliest English writer to formulate the intellectuals.’ Speaks of cultural evils he sees around him. Even picking up a newspaper, one is exposed to vulgarity. Only got with women who were inferior to him in many ways, he was a woman beater.

H. G Wells- He was obsessed with reducing the world’s culture and population.

Arnold Bennett- His book was liked by the masses; he made money from it and was therefore despised by the Intelligentsia. Yet he believed intellectuals should write to appeal to a wider audience. Surely a logical thing to do.

Wednesday 10 November 2010

Female. 20. UK. Single... And Looking?

When I hear the words ‘internet dating’ I immediately think of socially inept Star Wars fans and people who are obsessed with cats. A little harsh and judgemental I know but I’m pretty sure I’m not the only one who is aware of the negative connotations that go hand in hand with dating websites.
I assume that these sites are aimed at the more senior members of society, who lack a bustling social life and therefore have few opportunities to meet someone new. Personally, I do not believe anybody under the age of 35-40 should be anywhere near an online dating site. Go out and socialise. Surely it is easier to meet someone that way as opposed to trawling through ‘potentials’ on the internet, who clearly do not go to the gym five times a week, as it states on their profile.
I am fully aware of all the beautiful success stories that somehow emerge from these situations but is there not still a little bit of stigma attached to relationships that have blossomed over the internet? I can of course appreciate that it is just another way to meet someone and for those who are a little shy it is the perfect solution but how do you know what you’re really getting yourself into?
Another thing which gets to me about the whole concept is how much people lie on their dating profiles. Obviously twisting the truth to seem more appealing to the opposite sex is a given on these sites but saying you’re a 6ft5 body builder when actually you’re an overweight alcoholic is going a bit too far. Do people not realise this will all become very transparent when it comes to a face to face meeting?
Unfortunately, my next features challenge is to sign up to a few internet dating sites and see how easy or hard it is to get a date in a week. My concerns are predominantly regarding how many young, attractive and vaguely normal men are going to be advertising themselves online? And if they are, then what is it that is stopping them from meeting someone via old fashioned face to face means? Still, not wanting to turn down a potentially disastrous challenge, I’m willing to give it a go. Although I may draw the line at actually meeting up with a total stranger, we’ve all heard the horror stories. Cat obsessed Star Wars fans, here I come!

Saturday 30 October 2010

Halloween Trends 2010



Halloween is the perfect excuse for fancy dress. Whether you opt for scary or sexy, a good costume is essential this year.

Being a student means that you may not be able to afford a new costume every year but there is nothing wrong with recycling that devil outfit from five years ago, providing it still fits.

Make your fancy dress look more individual this year and harness your artistic talents by checking out fabric shops for quirky add ons to your outfit. A spider web print can make the perfect witches cape.

If you are going all out this year, check out your local fancy dress shop, for inspiration if nothing else. With everything from angels to zombies, there are plenty of imaginative options to go for.

Not so keen on dressing up? A plain white t-shirt, a pair of scissors and some fake blood provide a scary look that is not too extreme or expensive. If that still sounds like too much, opt for a simple mask and your Halloween look is sussed in one simple step.

Halloween always brings with it the old favourites as well as the newer sought after costumes. Comic book characters are still popular but dressing as a celebrity or film star is certainly a rising Halloween trend.

Thursday 21 October 2010

WINOL Features. Student Survival Review



The above is my second features project, put together by myself and Justina Chlad. The idea was based around the typical Channel 4 documentaries, where presenters take on a challenge in one form or another and record how they get on.
As the feature was to be aimed at students we picked a topic which most students could relate to. Money. We researched the maximum amount of money a student could receive through a grant or loan and how much they were expected to live off per week. After surveying students on campus, it was decided that Justina would try and live off a minimum food budget of just £20 a week.
We both planned out how we wanted it to be filmed, predominantly with the use of video diaries. The filming took place over the course of a week and we thought we had enough good footage to make a good ten minute feature.
Unfortunately when it came to editing it was clear to see all the errors we had made. The sound for one was barely audible and was extremely difficult to edit. A lot of the footage we filmed was too long and we did not cut it down enough, so many scenes are drawn out and a little boring.
I still think the idea is fantastic but the execution is lacking. Justina and I plan to re-do the feature before the end of term and make it far more presentable and professional. So keep your eyes peeled for a top notch feature coming soon!

Thus Spoke Zarathustra- Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was born 15th October 1844 in the small town of Rocken, and died 25th August 1900. Nietzsche was a highly influential philosopher, particularly within post modernism (a rejection of many ideas with philosophical modernism, such as humanity) and existentialism (the belief that philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of the existence of the individual person and their emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts).
Nietzsche’s key ideas included the death of God, perspectivism (the idea that there are many perspectives in which the judgement of what is true can be made), Ubermensch (dealt with in ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’), eternal recurrence (the idea that the universe has and will continue to recur) and will to power (humanity’s main focus- ambition and the aim to achieve the highest position).
Thus Spoke Zarathustra was written in four parts between 1883 and 1885. The introduction to the book is written by Nietzsche’s sister and it is explained that Zarathustra is the history of Nietzsche’s most individual experiences, ‘his friendships, ideals, raptures, bitterest disappointments and sorrows.’ The book also showcases Nietzsche’s greatest hopes and remotest aims. Zarathustra was the ‘haunter of (Nietzsche’s) dreams.’
Zarathustra’s Prologue
The book itself begins with Zarathustra, leaving his cave within the mountains in which he had lived for the past ten years. He claimed to have grown weary of his wisdom and wanted to share it with someone. ‘...like a bee that has too gathered too much honey; I need hands outstretched to take it..’
On his descent from the mountain Zarathustra meets a saint, who warns him of mankind’s imperfections and implores him to give nothing to them and to love God instead. Upon leaving the saint Zarathustra exclaims to himself ‘Could it be possible! This old saint has not yet heard in the forest that God is dead!’ Nietzsche’s first exclamation of the death of God was written in The Gay Science. Nietzsche is not denying the existence of God but he is asserting that God is no longer a strong enough belief to give meaning to people’s lives.
When Zarathustra reaches the nearest town he begins his first lesson. ‘I teach you the Superman. Man is something that should be overcome.’ He speaks of the Superman becoming the meaning of the earth, and to blaspheme the earth would be the greatest of offences. The people of the town do not appear to understand Zarathustra and have little interest in the overman, instead they laugh. Zarathustra is puzzled by their lack of comprehension and questions what makes them so proud. ‘What is it called that makes them proud? They call it culture, it distinguishes them from the goatherds.’
Zarathustra then speaks to the people of the town about the Ultimate Man- the most contemptible man. Again, the townspeople do not understand this and merely state that they are happy. Whilst Zarathustra is preaching a tightrope walker begins a performance but falls from his tightrope next to Zarathustra. He too is sceptical, but Zarathustra assures him that the ideas of heaven and hell are not real. ‘You have made danger your calling, there is nothing in that to despise, now you perish through your calling: so I will bury you with my own hands.’ The tightrope walker appears reassured and gestures to Zarathustra with his hand as if to shake it.
As Zarathustra walks to bury the tightrope walker he is met with laughter and the knowledge that the people of the town resent him and wish for him to live. He comes to the conclusion that he must no longer preach to the masses but instead seek out those of a similar mind to join him.
Part One: Zarathustra’s Discourses
Chapters one to ten of part one contain a series of teachings from Zarathustra.
Of The Three Metamorphoses: Zarathustra speaks of the metamorphoses of the spirit in three parts. The spirit becomes a camel, the camel a lion and the lion a child. This can be related to the idea of the superman/ the overman and the struggle to develop into the highest possible being, until the last stage has been reached and the struggle is replaced by innocence.
Throughout the other preaching’s it is evident that Nietzsche favours struggle and hardship, likening it to war or to climbing a mountain. ‘He who climbs the highest mountains laughs at all tragedies, real or imaginary.’ There are many things to overcome before a person can become the overman/superman.
Nietzsche also asserts that Christianity’s belief in heaven and hell is a rejection of the body, and the need for relief in the afterlife. (The Despisers of the Body.)
On Chastity: Nietzsche sees the pursuit of sex as counter-productive and something which could eventually corrupt the spirit. ‘Is it not better to fall into the hands of a murderer than into the dreams of a lustful woman?’
Many of the chapters and teachings in part one relate to distractions in becoming the overman. Love and marriage are distractions, women are a distraction, sex is a distraction and so on. It appears that Nietzsche favours solitude and personal hardship, his last lesson he preaches to the town, he encourages people to find their own paths and not simply follow his. Each must face their own journey to become overmen.
‘All gods are dead: now we want the superman to live- let this be our last will one day at the great noontide.’
Part Two
‘-and only when you have denied me will I return to you. Truly with other eyes, my brothers, I shall then seek my lost ones; with another love I shall then love you.’
In part two, Zarathustra returns to his cave in the mountains. In a dream he sees a devil and realises that his enemies are distorting the meaning of his teaching. He resolves to return to the people and continue to share his ‘old, wild wisdom.’
Part two of the book also has the key theme of will to power. Will to power is the belief that all life strives for power in one form or another. This encompasses both physical and mental power. True power can only be achieved by self-overcoming, which is a fundamental drive. Power can be sought from everything and freedom gained from it.
‘Everything is empty, everything is one, everything is past.’ (The Prophet) Zarathustra dreams he is a night-watchman, watching over coffins in a castle. The coffins burst open and laughter sounds. One of Zarathustra’s disciples interprets the dream as Zarathustra being a saviour who will awaken humanity from its emptiness and sadness. In many ways these references appear biblical, especially referring to saviours and disciples.
At the end of part two, Zarathustra again returns to his cave in solitude. ‘O Zarathustra, your fruits are ripe but you are not ripe for your fruits.’
Part Three
Zarathustra’s return to the mountains was predominantly to discover eternal recurrence. Courage is key in helping to confront eternal recurrence. Everything is infinite and every moment in life has already happened and will continue to happen. Zarathustra also states that courage destroys pity, which, to man, is the ‘deepest abyss.’ It also destroys death, saying ‘Was that life? Well then! Once more!’
Zarathustra expects the realisation of eternal recurrence to bring him pain but he is still filled with happiness. ‘Away with you blissful hour! With you there came to me an involuntary bliss! I stand here ready for my deepest pain- you came out of season.’
‘Happiness runs after me. That is because I do not run after women. Happiness, however, is a woman.’
It may seem a happy thought that all our best moments are repeated infinitely but we must also face the fact that all our worst moments will recur in the same way too. There is a balance between them both. Zarathustra cannot come to terms with this as it means that humanity, in its mediocre state, will never fully be overcome.
Although Nietzsche was an atheist, he does praise Jesus as being the creator of a new way of seeing, respecting Jesus as a man rather than a religious icon. Again this relates to will to power and courage to overcome.
Nietzsche also appears to praise evil at various points throughout the book. What makes something evil is dependent on a moral viewpoint and it is something to overcome as part of constant change.
Part Four
In part four of the book, Zarathustra waits in the mountains for people to come to him. Here he is asked to confront his final sin- pity. This was previously described in the book as a man’s deepest abyss. Zarathustra thinks he can hear the higher man calling out to him in despair and goes in search of him. On his journey he encounters various people: two kings, a man in a swamp, a magician, a pope, ‘the ugliest man,’ a beggar and his own shadow. Each of these encounters is an element of becoming the overman- Zarathustra’s ultimate goal, it is also each person Zarathustra meets with is an aspect of Nietzsche’s personality
The kings represent those who wish to worship a higher man rather than become one themselves.
The man in the swamp represents Nietzsche’s idea of the ideal philosopher.
The magician represents philosophy itself.
The ugliest man represents the resentment and overcoming of pity. God exposed all that was to be pitied about the man, therefore the ugliest man rejected God.
The beggar represents the need to learn and continually absorb knowledge.
Zarathustra’s shadow is representative of searching, but following someone else’s search rather than its own.
Zarathustra knows that none of the men in his cave can become overmen because they still hold too many of their old values and old resentments, for example the pope is still weighed down by his love for God. Zarathustra tells his companions to steer clear of the absolute- God, truth, morality.
Nietzsche also shows self doubt in part four of the book, as he questions whether his happiness and laughter are as a result of him only dealing with light-hearted issues. ‘...in all my efforts to free myself from dogmatism and absolutism, I've freed myself from everything substantial. Like a fool or a poet, perhaps I deal only with frivolous and pleasing subjects, and that's why I laugh.’
In the final chapter of the book, Zarathustra states ‘Very well! The lion has come, my children are near, Zarathustra has become ripe, my hour has come.’ This is referring to the lion in book one, the metamorphoses of the spirit. Zarathustra is on his way to becoming the superman/overman.
General points on Thus Spoke Zarathustra
Zarathustra is a man who praises laughter and can laugh at himself. He is critical of mass movements such as Christianity. It is easier to speak out to individuals rather than the masses. Zarathustra praises evil as it can get rid of older moralities, such as God, and replaces them with something new.
The overman is one who is free from prejudices and morality. The overman is the creator of his own value, which is the ultimate goal of humanity.
Eternal recurrence and will to power are also key concepts in overcoming man and becoming the overman.

Friday 8 October 2010

HCJ Seminar One, Year Two. Tabloid Nation- Chris Horrie.

Alfred Harmsworth, later to be known as Lord Northcliffe, was born in 1865 in Chapelizod, outside Dublin. Harmsworth's father was a semi-successful barrister, who was partial to a drink. His mother was very intelligent and Harmsworth worshipped her. He wrote to her almost every day and even named some of his important offices after her.
Harmsworth was not particularly academic; he was educated in a public school but left early and began working on an illustrated magazine for boys. He then went on to become a reporter for The Illustrated London News, a successful weekly picture magazine.
Aged 21, Harmsworth was appointed editor of Bicycling News, a magazine of mass circulation but his big break came when he stole some paper and using presses from Bicycling News, created his own publication. The publication was titled Answers to Correspondents on Every Subject Under the Sun, which was similar to an existing magazine called Tit Bits.
Harmsworth increased the circulation of his new magazine by coming up with clever ideas for competitions and giveaways. Many of these were simply impossible to win, for example winning £1 a week for life if the reader could guess the exact amount of money in the Bank of England. This attracted 700,000 entries, sky rocketing circulation.
Harmsworth's first national paper was the Daily Mail, which was launched in May 1896, with the slogan 'A penny paper for half a penny.' Harmsworth decided no article in the paper should be more than 250 words and the writing was to be aimed at a new audience; Boarding School students being a main part of that new audience. ''They have no interest in society, but want anything which is interesting and sufficiently simple.''
The Daily Mail sold 397, 215 on its launch. Harmsworth later introduced a women’s section into the paper, the first of its kind in national papers. This idea proved to be a success so Harmsworth introduced a paper just for women, the Daily Mirror.
Harmsworth hired Kennedy Jones to be in charge of the Mirror, Jones had previously worked on William Randolph Hearst's Journal.
The launch of the Daily Mirror cost £100,000. The paper was extremely well advertised; Harmsworth claimed anyone who did not know about it must be ''deaf, dumb, blind or all three.''
On Sunday November 2nd 1903 the first edition of the Mirror was published but sales rapidly declined after the launch and the paper began losing £3000 a week, ruining the profit from the Daily Mail. This loss of profit had the potential to ruin Harmsworth and his business.
Hamilton Fyfe, the editor of the Morning Advertiser was on the verge of being fired. The Mirror was a failing idea and Harmsworth claimed this was due to the fact that women 'cannot write and do not want to read.' In an effort to save the paper, Harmsworth hired Fyfe as editor of the Mirror. He was to get rid of all the female journalists and Harmsworth's cousin. Over one weekend the office was transformed from 'a women's boudoir' to a masculine place of 'pipe smoke and cynical laughter.'
Fyfe had no issue with getting rid of the female journalists, all except for Mary Howarth, who was the first female editor of a national paper in modern times. Fyfe described the whole experience 'like drowning kittens.'
Hannen Swaffer was one of the journalists hired to transform the Mirror and in 1904 the paper transformed to 'The Illustrated Daily Mirror.' The illustrations pushed sales from 25,000 to almost one million within a few years.
The first edition of the re-launch contained pictures of King Edward VII and his family which trebled the circulation. This was followed up by pictures of actresses, sportsmen, babies and animals. The new Mirror aimed to 'provide customers with something to look at on their journey to work, to occupy their minds and prevent them from thinking.'
On the newspapers first anniversary it was selling 290,000 copies and was once again called the Mirror. In 1907 Fyfe left the paper and was replaced by Alexander Kenealy, who had also work for William Randolph Hearst's Journal. Kenealy did the writing while Swaffer took care of the pictures. Swaffer was willing to pay big money for any pictures depicting accidents, disasters, crime, royalty or sporting heroes.
Swaffer's approach to photography was revolutionary; he encouraged reporters to get into dangerous situations for action shots. The greatest scoop for the paper was a picture of the King on his death bed. The day after the funeral, the picture was republished and sales reached 2,013,000.
Swaffer and Harmsworth’s relationship did not improve and Swaffer eventually sacked himself and joined the rival paper the Daily Sketch. He was eventually sued for libel and his career ended.
In the 1930s Swaffer claimed to be the most famous and successful journalist and his work became increasingly more left wing. He was given the nickname 'the Pope of Fleet Street,' but he was forgotten by the 1970s.
In 1905 Harmsworth became Lord Northcliffe after donating and giving political support to the Liberal Party.
The year of his ennoblement, Northcliffe brought the Sunday Observer, in an effort to gain political influence. Three years later he brought the Times, which was reputably read by the King, Prime Minister and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Northcliffe resolved to turn the Mail into a more serious paper and sell the Mirror. The Mirror was beyond redemption, as it was mainly read by women who did not have the right to vote.
In 1910 Northcliffe began to sever ties with the Mirror and sold his remaining shares four years later at £100,000 to his younger brother, Harold Harmsworth, who then became Lord Rothermere in the same year.
The Mirror began to suffer under Rothermere with 'sudden budget cuts, self defeating economy drives and constant editorial interference.'
The Mirror came out of the war in a strong position, with the highest sales of any daily paper, predominantly due to photojournalism. Over the next twenty years national newspaper sales doubled from five million to ten million.
In 1922, Rothermere inherited the Mail and began to neglect the Mirror. In June 1922 Northcliffe had fallen into a state of psychotic paranoia and died later that year.
Rothermere began to move towards extreme right wing political views and in 1929 he joined Lord Beaverbrook to launch the United Party. In 1931 Rothermere moved towards extreme fascism.
By 1934 the fascist movement came to rise and both the Mirror and the Mail supported it. Rothermere was an admirer of Hitler, referring to him as a 'perfect gentleman.'
Rothermere died in 1940 and his last words were 'there is nothing more I can do to help my country now.'
Harry Guy Bartholomew, former apprentice of Swaffer had taken over the Mirror in 1934, it was rumoured he was Northcliffe's illegitimate son.
Cecil Harmsworth King, Northcliffe's cousin and Rothermere formed an alliance to become the new lords of Fleet Street; they created the biggest selling paper in the world.

Wednesday 6 October 2010

Campus Couture- Freshers Flaunt Fashion



Summer is now at an end, so you can pack away your maxidresses and prepare for a new Autumn/Winter wardrobe.

High street brands prove popular among students looking for a cheaper alternative to designer labels. Shops such as Topshop and River Island provide the latest fashions for a cheaper price.

This season showcases a minimal look for girls, with many wearing subtle tones.

Heels are out this season and flat shoes dominate. A good pair of boots is essential for the winter months; Ugg and ankle boots are popular choices for many. This is good news for those of us who have a long walk to uni in the morning!

Topshop's current 'it' item is the aviator jacket, say the experts. Though the jacket is a pricey £90 in stores, it can be bought for as little as £40 on-line from sites such as Boohoo.com, ASOS.com and several others.

Around our very own Winchester University many of you are sporting another runway look, wearing faux fur and woollens to achieve an outdoor image whilst keeping it refined. Fur gilets, hooded scarves which make a statement, and knitwear jumpers are must-have items.

Guys, don't throw geek chic out the window just yet. It's all about a smart, modern look this season, with large coats giving you an excuse to wrap up warm. H&M is ideal for winter warmers, with jackets ranging from around the £15 mark to about £70.

The must-have bag this season is large and structured. This is perfect for students who face the burden of carrying study books; stylish and practical. Though most guys will still opt for something less obvious, the structured bag can be worn by both sexes - win, win, win!

The style scene around campus is arguably inspired by this season's catwalk. Students can now afford the latest fashion trends if they choose, thanks to our favourite affordable brands.

Sunday 3 October 2010

First Week on the WINOL Features Team

After what has seemed to be a never ending summer I am finally back at University, starting my second year as a journalism student.
I am now part of the features team for Winchester News Online. A sense of naivety told me that I would perhaps have a week or so to gather ideas and develop a suitable work ethic. I was wrong. The first day back brought with it my two first features assignments.
Myself and Justina Chlad are currently developing a 'Freshers Fashion' and 'Course Reviews' feature. Over the summer I had completely forgotten how to operate any sort of camera equipment and the thought of using editing software again was daunting to say the least. Thankfully a couple of revision sessions have brought me back up to speed.
The Freshers Fashion feature seems to be taking shape, the editing process will be the most difficult but I have an idea of how I want the piece to look. We have yet to begin filming the course reviews but have managed to arrange interviews with the lecturers we want to speak to and the filming will commence on Monday.
A meeting with the features editor, Veronica Frydel, will hopefully cement our ideas and ensure our first two features projects are successful.

Saturday 2 October 2010

HCJ Lecture One, Year Two. William Randolph Hearst.

America Transformed
The Gold Rush in the 1840s- 1850s transformed Western America, with thousands heading West hoping to get their share of gold. The discovery of gold in California coincided with European immigration. Millions of people left Europe to flee to the US, influenced by factors such as the Irish famine of the 1840s.

Many Americans justified the expansion in the West as ’Manifest Destiny,’ the right to expand. Many Indian tribes were wiped out during this period.

Frontier thesis: During the time when the West was incorporated into America, it was seen as a blank canvas to be transformed. However, this encouraged violence and individualistic behaviour, cementing what it meant to be American. Behaviours of this time were embedded into the American psyche, especially the idea that the further West one went, the more American one was. California was seen to be the beating heart of the United States.

George Hearst
Father of William Randolph Hearst, George Hearst was born September 3rd 1820. He was one of the thousands of people who travelled to California in 1850 on the promise of gold. He travelled over a thousand miles, allegedly all on foot, with a team of sixteen other men. Hearst was not particularly successful in gold mining and soon turned his attention to running a general store as well as being a miner.
George Hearst was also keen on forming a political career and it is rumoured that in 1880 he won the San Francisco Examiner in a poker game, although the more official story is that he brought it believing it could become a profitable enterprise.
Early American newspapers, also know as the ‘Penny Papers,’ were of two types; political and commercial. Political papers were predominantly seen as propaganda.
In 1846 New York newspapers organised the Associated Press- they needed to be objective because they supplied content for a variety of papers with widely different political allegiance.

William Randolph Hearst
In 1887 William Randolph Hearst, son of George Hearst, took over the San Francisco Examiner and transformed it. The front page of The Examiner was previously filled with dozens of stories, making it look like a wall of text. Hearst, being a collector of fine European art, had an understanding of aesthetics and applied it to the newspaper.
Hearst became obsessed with the front page of his newspaper, he reduced the stories, doubled the size of the headlines and eliminated advertisements. Above the masthead he put endorsements and circulation figures.
Hearst also included illustrations, believing they ‘attract the eye and stimulate the imagination of the lower classes and materially aid comprehension.’
The writing in the papers itself was also improved to become more focussed and urgent, with the Examiner printing eye catching headlines such as; ‘BUTCHERED AS THEY RAN.’ Hearst knew what people wanted to read.

New York
New York was a fast developing city and this growth was fuelled by a number of factors:
1. Cheap labour
2. Urban concentration
3. Very low commodity prices, especially food
4. Capital accumulation
5. Vast infrastructure investment, e.g: railways

Cheap labour was probably the most important contributing factor to New York’s rapid growth, as so many people were willing to work for very little pay.

The Yellow Kid
In 1896 Hearst brought the New York Morning Journal and poached the Yellow Kid from Joseph Pulitzer, owner and publisher of the New York World. Pulitzer tried to stay in the game and hired another cartoonist to produce the Yellow Kid for his paper, so for a time there were two New York newspapers with the same cartoon. As copyright laws were weak at this time, there was no legal battle over the ownership of the Yellow Kid and the papers soon became known as the yellow papers.
It was a popular cartoon with the working class due to the language used and the lack of empathy with the upper class. The Yellow Kid character and his friends were all clearly immigrants, spanning from Ireland, China, Europe and Africa.
The yellow press is equivalent to today’s red top papers like The Sun and The Mirror.

Crime
The New York Morning Journal and the New York World were constantly going head to head and even battled to solve crime. In one case, a body washed ashore on New York’s East River. The Journal offered a $1,000 reward for any clues to the identity of the body and the cause of death. The Journal were successful in gathering information and an arrest was made. The Journal’s headline read; ‘MURDER MYSTERY SOLVED BY THE JOURNAL.’
Crime captivated the interest of readers and gained a higher circulation for papers.

Spanish War- Boom Time!
The Spanish-American War began in 1898 and was a conflict between Spain and America predominantly concerning the liberation of Cuba. Cuba was dominated by Spain and Hearst became a champion for their cause. Both Hearst and Pulitzer saw the potential for headlines and both sent reporters to cover the ongoing feud.
Harding Davis, the reporter for the Journal, complained in a letter to Hearst that he had ‘not heard a shot fired or seen an insurgent.’ Frederic Remington, illustrator for the Journal also complained he was bored and he was adamant there would be no war. Hearst was keen for Remington to stay and said to him; ‘You furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war.’ Hearst later denied saying this.
Always on the look out for a big story Hearst helped to rescue the daughter of a Cuban leader. She had supposedly been imprisoned for refusing to sleep with the Captain of a rebel army. Hearst created a petition for her release, getting all the top women in America to sign, including the wife of the president. The Spanish ignored the petition, so Hearst sent a reporter to bribe the prison guards where Cisneros was held captive. Cisneros was successfully brought to America where Hearst housed her in the Waldorf Hotel, creating another winning story for his newspaper.
On February 15th 1898, the main cause of the war finally erupted when USS Maine was sunk in Havana Harbour. Hearst published headlines openly blaming the Spanish, the day after USS Maine sunk the Journal broke the one million circulation mark.
‘HOW DO YOU LIKE THE JOURNAL’S WAR?’
Hearst brought twenty correspondents, twelve yachts, giant hot air balloons, a printing press, the first ever motion picture camera and two girls dressed in sailor suits. This was all funded off the success of his newspaper stories. The war was a huge success for the yellow papers.

Hearst's Influence
William Randolph Hearst created the models for modern and popular tabloid journalism. The style of the yellow papers was later copied in the UK by Northcliffe, Rothermere (Daily Mail and Daily Mirror) and ultimately by Rupert Murdoch (The Sun). It is undeniable that Hearst has directly influenced today’s journalism.

Tuesday 20 July 2010

Crime: Adultery. Sentence: Death by Stoning.

Four years ago, in Iran, Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani was convicted of having an ''illicit relationship’’ with two men. A review of her case resulted in her and one of her alleged lovers being charged with the murder of her husband. Ashtiani denied the charges brought against her and she was cleared of murder. However, three of the five male judges decided that she was still guilty of adultery. Punishment: death by stoning.

This case has gained an increasing amount of attention after Ashtiani’s son wrote an open letter to Iran’s leaders stating: ‘’There is no justice in this country.’’ A number of human rights activists, celebrities and politicians have joined the campaign against this outrageous punishment. This has incited Iranian authorities to declare that Ashtiani will not be stoned at present, however the final verdict is still uncertain.

The few countries where stoning is still a legal punishment include Somalia, Sudan, Afghanistan and Iran, where it is seen to be a form of tribal retribution. It is often mistaken to be a typically Islamic practice but many campaigners against stoning are Muslim, who believe it is highly immoral and damaging to the countries which allow it to take place. It is also written in the Koran that the punishment for adultery is NOT stoning, but for the adulterous wife to be ’confined to their house until death overtakes them,’ and that four witnesses must be produced for the illicit activity to be proven.

Stoning was introduced in 1983 after the Islamic Revolution. In the 1980s and 1990s, it is thought that hundreds of women suffered in this way, however in 2002 after a wide national outcry, Mahmoud Hashemi, the chief of Iran’s judiciary, imposed a suspension of this law. This was never formally amended, so stoning continued to occur but it was carried out with more restraint so as not to draw attention to it. It is said there are, at present, 12 other Iranian women besides Ashtiani who are awaiting execution by stoning.

It is beyond belief that this practice is still continued today and it is largely due to the fact that it is one of many ways in which the Iranian regime controls its population. Not all death sentences are carried out, but are instead used as a threat to those opposing the Iranian regime. Although Ashtiani’s case still makes headline news, many other cases of equal magnitude go unreported. There were at least 388 people executed in Iran in 2009 and 126 this year so far. This is more than any other country in the word besides China. Most of these executions are carried out by hanging, but a small proportion are still put to death by stoning.

Such severe and inhumane behaviour is unlikely to stop any time soon but that does not make it an issue to place on the back burner. With cases such as Ashtiani’s receiving so much attention, it makes it impossible for the problem to be ignored.

Monday 19 July 2010

'R.I.P No.1 Legend.'

The above is not something I would expect to find written on a note accompanying a bunch of flowers left in memory of a man David Cameron called a ‘callous murderer.’ Raoul Moat was headline news over the past few weeks. The ex bouncer was released from prison on 1st July this year, after being sentenced for assaulting a nine year old child. Days later he was being hunted in relation to the shooting of his ex girlfriend and her new partner, who was killed. Moat went on to shoot police officer David Rathband who has been left blinded by the attack. Moat was hunted by armed officers for a week before a six hour police negotiation which ended with him taking his own life.

It is unbelievable that the public are sympathising with such a man, when surely the sympathy is due to his victims. To brand him a legend is perverse. Could they be confusing him with a celebrity? Another person whose past traumas are aired to excuse their actions.

As a society we have an unnecessary need to place blame, it seems to me that we need to accept more responsibility for ourselves. In Moat’s case, the blame is on social services for not recognising and acting upon Moat’s mental disposition, after he sought help from them. The police are also being criticised for their ’blunders’ during the hunt for Moat. It is said they failed to pick up on his danger to the public, after he threatened his ex partner and posted concerning statuses on his facebook page, claiming to have ’lost everything.’

Why is so difficult to accept that Moat was a disturbed individual who reached a fatal breaking point. Moat was fully aware of his instability, evident from his own recordings of conversations with social workers where he claimed he wanted to see a psychiatrist. His break down could not have been predicted, therefore his actions were his own and not the by-product of a failing social system.

Another interesting source of blame is the media itself. Johann Hari from The Independent said; ‘The media needs to show some responsibility. We must stop putting the killers face everywhere and broadcasting his every grievance. Instead, we should report the facts soberly, and lead with the victims.‘ We must remember these events were not part of a television soap opera, the coverage Moat was given as a result of his appalling actions does not make him someone to elevate in our society.

Those with no connection to Moat, who are laying flowers and notes of sympathy for him should seek help themselves.

Wednesday 12 May 2010

Election Night at the University of Winchester

Standing outside the University of Winchester on the evening of Thursday 6th of May, the atmosphere seems quiet with students leaving after their lectures. Enter the journalism newsroom and the atmosphere completely changes. Filling the room are second year journalism students, many dressed in suits, ready to appear in front of the camera. BBC news broadcasts about the election are playing in the background.
As the clock ticks closer to 10 o’clock, when WINOL goes live, the students become increasingly frantic. Many rush back and forth from the gallery, others pace up and down the newsroom rehearsing scripts.
10 o’clock arrives and WINOL is live. First year students post the link to the broadcast all over their facebook pages, trying to get as many people to watch as possible. Others keep an eye on mainstream broadcasts from ITV and the BBC, to monitor their coverage and listen to the latest predictions on whether the outcome will be a hung parliament.
Down in the studio, the main presenter Graham Bell is into the swing of the evening, confidently talking about the election campaigns, debating the success of Labour, Liberal Democrats and Conservative parties. Everything seems to be going smoothly until technical difficulties strike. Although trying to stay calm, mild panic is apparent as the students try to recover from the error, which they do efficiently. Outside broadcasts from vote counts across the local area are being shown via Skype, a first for broadcasting.
In the multimedia centre a team of four smartly dressed male students anxiously wait for their moment on camera. Each of them has a scripted piece on either Labour, Liberal Democrats, Conservative or other parties such as UKIP. One of the students, wearing a white shirt, with a smart tie, paces around the room, reading his script aloud, stopping occasionally making slight hand gestures to emphasize his words. Then the count- down comes from the gallery and one of the students rushes in front of the camera ready to speak, quickly looking over what he had written down one more time. Each of them says their piece on the latest news on the political parties and a look of relief is apparent as their first camera appearance is over.
Back in the gallery, the students seem at ease running the operation. Instructions are continuously fed to those down in the studio, making sure every camera angle is perfect and all the right things are said.
Despite the previous lack of success with the outside broadcasts via Skype, the students persevere with the method and it eventually brings them luck. Students stationed at the vote counts in Andover and Winchester effectively broadcast news live to the studio, giving the whole situation a more professional feel, making the students feel like real journalists.
Heading back to the newsroom, updates are constant from the BBC and other main stations and the students ensure they are watching for any information that may be relevant. Kingston University phone lecturer Chris Horrie to reveal that an exit poll on the students that voted showed that 61% had voted Liberal Democrat. This information is quickly relayed to one of the presenters for their next package.
The newsroom computers all show the WINOL broadcast or prints of scripts and election figures and facts. Everyone has completely thrown themselves into the spirit of politics, the desks are awash with the days papers, David Cameron’s face plastered all over the front of ‘The Sun.’
Walking back through the multimedia centre, a first year rushes in excitedly declaring the BBC have shown interest in the broadcast and if possible want to use one of the packages produced. Unfortunately, this does not quite go to plan as the outside broadcast from the New Forest fails to work due to a poor internet connection. But the fact the BBC are even interested is enough to keep the students motivated.
Halfway through the night and fatigue starts to set in, coffee cups and cans of energy drinks are strewn everywhere. The atmosphere is still buzzing, knowing that there are still up to four hours to fill. Everybody is determined to last out until the Winchester election vote is called out, hoping that WINOL will be the first to screen the news.
As the night progresses, proceedings continue to run smoothly enough, there are a few further technical difficulties and issues with sound but the students do not seem to let this phase them, they simply recover and move on. A very professional attitude.
Nearing 4am coffee cups continue to mount and camera shifts change to give people a break. The Winchester vote has still not been announced; raising tensions about who the new candidate will be. Opinions fly between the students as they debate whether Martin Tod will succeed.
The four men in the multimedia centre have done their work for the night and adopt a more relaxed stance as they can now take in and appreciate everything else that is going on. The gallery is still fairly frantic, instructions being batted back and forth from the studio, screens showing every camera and analysing each lens angle.
In the studio, Graham is aptly filling out the time and building the anticipation until the Winchester results come through. Thankfully the outside broadcasting to the vote count at Winchester Leisure Centre seems to be working in order, with regular updates coming through.
The time eventually ticks round to just gone half past five and the moment everyone has been waiting for... WINOL broadcast Winchester election results live! Conservative candidate Steve Brine wins the vote. There is a definite feeling of accomplishment and most certainly relief that the cameras can now be shut off and the champagne can be opened.

Friday 26 March 2010

Radio Script Week3

Good morning, you’re listening to Winchester Newsbeat at 11 o’clock. I’m Hannah Keegan, here with a short news update.

[Story1]
A debate held in Winchester yesterday voted in support of legalising assisted suicide for the terminally ill.
Around 150 people attended the debate, which was lead by a panel of experts and chaired by broadcaster Debbie Thrower.
The vote was backed by the majority, with 66 per cent in favour, 28 per cent against and 6 per cent abstaining. Many members of the public are still unconvinced it should be legalised.


[Story 2]
A Winchester schoolgirl is taking a seat in the UK Youth Parliament to represent Winchester and Eastleigh.
Felicity Stonehill, aged 15 from The Westgate School in Winchester will join other young people from schools, colleges and youth centres across Hampshire in voting in the November local elections.
Hampshire Youth Council representatives will work with each new member of the Youth Parliament for a year to ask young people about current issues that affect them.
Martin Tod, Liberal Democrat potential MP for Winchester praised the Youth Parliament for its work.



[Story 3]
Young people living in and around Winchester will soon have access to a new youth café, as the campaign to raise an additional £150,000 for the build nears its halfway mark.
Winchester YMCA are in charge of constructing the new social outlet in the 13th century undercroft of St John’s House.
The YMCA have so far raised £45,000 from public donations and a further £20,000 grant was agreed by the city council at their last budget meeting. Another £85,000 is still needed to begin the build.
Simon Dodd, YMCA Youth Programme manager said support has been positive.

If successful, the café is set to be open in September of this year.


[Story 4]
And finally, residents, groups and businesses are participating in a charity event to help raise money for homeless charities in Winchester.
Everyone is invited to join ‘Winchester Walk for the Homeless,’ on Sunday 9th May in an effort to raise £50,000.
Walkers can chose a walking distance to suit them, from a 12-mile trek to a 1.5-mile family friendly pace. The proceedings will be directly donated to the homeless charities.
Michele Price from Winchester Church’s Nightshelter said awareness still needs to be raised on the issue.

You can register online now for the walk at www.winchesterwalk.co.uk.

That’s all for now, further news updates at midday.

Thursday 25 March 2010

Overview of Local Government- Notes from Lectures

Planning
• NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) people who suggest, for example, the building of wind turbines but wouldn’t want it near their property etc.
• Building needs to be on appropriate land. Green belt- area around cities that prevent towns and cities from merging, protect the countryside so these areas cannot be built on. Brown field- land that can be built on and re-used. Green field is land that also cannot be built on.
• Town and County planning codes make the acts.
• Process of planning:
1) Forward Planning: strategic development
2) Development Control.
• The current community secretary is John Denham. He publishes guidelines for local planning authorities. Issues Planning Policy Statements (PPS).
• RSS- Regional Spatial Strategies- this is more specific to regional strategies. National policy strategies also introduced.
• Community Secretary appoints inspectors to convene in public planning enquiries and controversial enquiries. Has complete power over everything and gets to give final ruling.
• 2004 Act simplifies the planning process.
• A 20 year plan was produced by each of England’s eight regions development agencies.
• Local development documents are interpreted by local councils of the RSS, however this leads to friction between Whitehall and local councils over national quotas.
• 60% of RDA (Regional Development Association) are local councillors, 40% are appointed representatives.
• Major developments are now moving away from the RSS and are now under the responsibility if the IPC (Infrastructure Planning Commission). The IPC are independent from the government and the hearings are held in public.
• IPC replace political decisions with impartial ones.
• Planning permission: to build on a site from scratch or undergo a MAJOR alteration there are two steps to go through.
1) Outline planning permission- consent in principle which lasts for five years but must be acted upon in three years.
2) Full planning permission must be acted upon in five years. Authorities can give unconditional consent, conditional consent or refusal.
• Compulsory Purchase Order (CPO) - owners of a building are paid at market rate if the building needs to be cleared.
• Listed buildings, grade one and two cannot be altered.

Westminster
• Rules of privilege- anything can be reported however DO NOT EVER MENTION THE ROYALS!!
• Each day, except for Friday, begins with questions to the Minister from one department. MPs can question the Minister at the start of daily proceedings.
• Minister from each Whitehall department are questioned roughly once a month.
• Ministerial questions- either when Ministers have something important to announce to bring MPs up to date on a topical issue.
• Ministerial statements are often completely out of the blue.
• Conservative spokesman (2009) has five minutes to reply and Lib Dem spokesman has three minutes to reply as they have fewer seats in parliament.
• Questions from MPs are taken at the speaker’s discretion.
• Voting in the Commons formerly called a division.
• House of Lords- all new laws have to be approved by both Houses of Parliament, except for taxes which are approved by MPs.
• In the event of disagreement, can be overruled by government use of parliament acts.
• Life peers- appointed due to profession or loyalty to political party.
• Party funding comes from subscription from members, donations are heavily relied on and state funding.
• Ashcroft money- the theory goes that as the Ashcroft’s have an overseas bank, they do not get taxed on it, Labour wants to tax them on the money, however the Tory’s say they will not tax them on the account if they support their party and give donations!
• Scrutiny Regulations.
• Bank of England is in charge of treasury. CPI (Consumer Price Index).
• Quantitative easing- Bank of England created £75billion in 2009 to try and revive the economy.
• Ofgem- gas and electric.
• Ofcom- communications.
• Local Government- made up of single tier and two tier systems.
• Single tier councils are responsible for all local authority services and functions.
• Two tier- services divided between district and county councils.
• Local authorities employ over 2 billion people, councillors are responsible for making decisions on behalf of local community.
• CCT (Compulsive Competitive Tender) encouraged by Thatcher to put local services to private tender. More competitive to make services better.
• Education- largest service supported by authorities.
• Social Services- in charge of children’s homes, foster care etc and half their budget goes to support the elderly.
• Waste management- county council is responsible for waste disposal and district council is responsible for waste collection.
• Roads, highways and transport- 96% of roads built, maintained and managed by local authorities.
• Libraries, trading standards and fire and rescue and environmental affairs are also managed by the local government.
• Local authorities funded by grants from central government, council tax and business rates.
• Council tax accounts for 25% of local funding.
• Council tax payable depends on the value of your home.
• Business rates are a property tax on businesses, set by the central government.
• Grants given by central government at Westminster so authority can give their services.
• Government of London- London elects a Mayor and an assembly which form the Greater London Authority (GLA).
• Quango- Non elected or indirectly elected agency that spends public money. The government refer to these agencies as Non Departmental Public Bodies (NDPB).

Devolution
• Act of Union in Ireland 1901.
• Act of Union in Scotland 1907.
• In 1922 the Irish Free State was established (Republic of Ireland).
• 1920s/ 1930s nationalists campaigned for independence, i.e. Scottish National Party (SNP).
• In 1972 Northern Ireland’s parliament was suspended and then abolished in 1973 in favour of direct rule from Westminster.
• In 1997 Labour won the general election and pledged to have referendums on devolution in Scotland and Wales.
• In 1998 devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales produced yes votes.
• In 2007 the Northern Ireland assembly and executives were restored.
• Reserved powers (Police, justice, minimum wage, financial services etc) versus Devolved powers (separate powers such as Scotland, Ireland and Wales).
• Scotland has its own legal system but limited tax raising powers.
• After 2007 the Welsh assembly could pass primary legislation. Same with Northern Ireland, responsible for education etc.

Housing
• ‘Homes for Heroes’ programme began cleaning up the slums between WW1 and WW2.
• Planned estates built pre WW2 created huge urban areas for housing, whole new cities were built.
• In the 1950s there was a baby boom, which meant a huge demand for housing and many tower blocks were built.
• More towns were created in the 1960s- all with good infrastructures and two or three storey houses.
• Each local authority maintains their own stock of social housing.
• Council houses- the benefits of council houses include security, rent below market average, no deposit etc.
• The Homeless Act of 2002 introduced a point system to prioritise applicants.
• Councils are responsible for repairing social housing.
• Thatcherite Housing Policy- Conservatives were elected in 1979 and 5 million council tenants were given the chance to buy their homes at a 50% discounted price.
• From 1980 to 1995, 2.1 million houses were brought by the tenants, since then council houses have been sold off at a rate of 60,000 per year.
• A total of £33billion has been made from the scheme.
• In 1961 44% of homes were owned, in 2006 this had risen to 70%.
• The government plans to build three million new homes by 2020.
• Under the Homeless Act 1977, the duty of the local authority is to house the unintentionally homeless within 28 days of being aware of their predicament.
• Housing benefits fall into 2 categories:
1) Standard housing benefit- paid to those on low earnings.
2) Certified housing benefit- job seekers allowance, income support and incapability benefit.

Monday 22 March 2010

Spare Some Change?

Over the last few weeks, a couple of articles in The Hampshire Chronicle have caught my eye, regarding raising awareness about homelessness. Now, admittedly this is not an issue I contemplate often, however it is an issue most of us will come face to face with every day.

When walking down the street, if you see a man or woman sat on the side of the pavement asking for money, do you walk by, completely ignoring them? Politely tell them you have no spare change? Or do you search your purse or wallet for any loose coins you can give them? I will admit I mostly go for option two, but why? What is it, when confronted with a homeless person that makes us so reluctant to help?

I believe many people attach stereotypes to homeless people and this creates fear because we do not understand how a person has come to be in that situation. We assume if we give them money, it may only go on cigarettes and alcohol or something wholly unbeneficial. I was in town with a friend not so long ago, and we walked past a man sitting on the pavement, he looked up at us and before he could even say anything, my friend told him she had no money (and actually after that, he said he was only going to ask for her gloves, to which she also answered no!) but my point is we seem so unwilling to help.

The first of the articles I read in The Hampshire Chronicle was relating to a poetry competition, aimed at raising awareness about homelessness. The competition was organised by Winchester Churches Nightshelter in Jewry Street. It saw more than 150 entries from local schools, councillors and homeless people themselves. The poetry entries were then categorised by age and a winner picked from each category. Over 200 people turned up to hear the winners be announced by the city Mayor, Cllr Dominic Hiscock.

By launching a poetry competition, it appeals to all ages and I feel it is especially effective for school children in making them think about the matter and having to find a way to describe it. It is something worth talking about, not something we should all be keeping closed mouthed about, or the problem will surely worsen.

The second article that caught my eye was about a fund raising event for Winchester’s homeless charities; Trinity Winchester, Winchester Churches Nightshelter, and Keystone. I used this story in my radio bulletin last week. The Rotary Club of Winchester is encouraging residents to take part in a walk around the local area for £10 per person, or £20 for a group of five or more. The money raised will then be directly donated to the above listed charities.

It is events like this which need more publicity, so people become aware of the affect of homelessness and how it can be eased.

I asked Martin Tod (Liberal Democrat potential MP for Winchester, I’m sure you all know who he is by now!) whether he felt enough was being done by the government and local political parties or whether the issue was best left to charities to deal with, and quite simply what needs to be done to help and by whom.

“Well there’s an awful lot that the council does and you know there’s a lot we want to do to get more houses into circulation and there’s an awful lot of empty homes, even in Winchester that we think should be used to house people but there are a lot of people waiting on the housing waiting list at the moment so part of what’s needed is that we are going to need to build more houses and build more social houses, so absolutely that’s a real priority for us.”

Well, of course creating more houses is the obvious solution, but how would this be funded? And it’s all well and good refurbishing empty houses for the homeless, but how would they continue to afford it.

This is an ongoing problem that needs to be addressed with a wider scheme. But for now it looks like most of the pressure to aid the situation lies with charities. This is something I definitely need and want to look into further to see what is being done on a wider scale.

Sunday 21 March 2010

Radio Script Week Two

(Intro)
Hello and welcome to Winchester Newsbeat. I'm Hannah Keegan, here with a short news update.

(Story 1)
Detectives are looking for robbers who threatened a service station employee with a gun and a metal bar last night in Weyhill Road, Andover.
The robbers made off with a small amount of cash from the till in a blue Renault Clio, driven by a third party.
The cashier, although unharmed, was shaken by the ordeal.
Detectives are appealing to anyone who was in the area of the service station around the time of the incident, who may be able to help with their enquiries.

(Story 2)
Major building projects across four of Winchester’s schools have been given the go ahead by Councillor David Kirk, Hampshire County Council’s Executive Member for Children’s Services.
The project will cost more than £1.6million and aims to expand the schools’ facilities to benefit both staff and pupils.
Stanmore Primary, King’s School, Swanmore College of Technology and Weeke Primary School have been approved to receive the funding.

(Story 3)
In other news, a Winchester school girl is taking a seat in the UK Youth Parliament to represent Winchester and Eastleigh.
Felicity Stonehill, aged 15 from The Westgate School will join other young people from schools, colleges and youth centres across Hampshire in voting in the November local elections.
Martin Tod, Liberal Democrat prospective MP for Winchester praised the Youth Parliament for their work.
(Audio)
''Youth Parliament does quite a good job of making sure young people’s issues are heard, so I think that's a good thing and every part of the country needs to be represented, so I think it's good that Winchester is as well. Personally I think people should get into the mindset of being active citizens and the idea that they can change things and they deserve to be listened to and if that involves people getting involved in the youth council, the youth parliament then that's great.''

(Story 4)
And finally, residents, groups and businesses are participating in a charity event to help raise money for homeless charities in Winchester.
Everyone is invited to join ‘Winchester Walk for the Homeless,’ on Sunday 9th May in an effort to raise £50,000.
Walkers can chose a walking distance to suit them, from a 12-mile trek to a 1.5-mile family friendly pace. The proceedings will be directly donated to the homeless charities.
You can register online now for the walk at www.winchesterwalk.co.uk.
(Finish)

Radio Script Week One

(Intro)Welcome to Winchester Newsbeat at 11 o’clock, I’m Hannah Keegan with a short news update.

(Story One- written by Cara Laithwaite)
Southampton was brought to a standstill on Thursday after an unexploded bomb was discovered in London Road; near the city centre.
The device, which had been left over from World War II, was uncovered by builders working on the site.
Both ends of London Road were cordoned off by police and nearby residents were evacuated.
The bomb was later removed by bomb disposal experts in the early hours of Friday morning and taken away to be safely detonated.

(Story Two- written by Justina Chlad)
In other news, unemployment in Winchester is on the increase, the number of people claiming Job Seeker Allowance rose in January and is now the highest figure since August 2009. Martin Todd, Liberal Democrat Prospective MP for Winchester believes it is possible to lower the unemployment rate and states more jobs need to be created to tackle the problem.

(Story Three)
Young people living in and around Winchester will soon have access to a new youth cafe, as the campaign to raise an additional £150,000 for the build nears its halfway mark.
Winchester YMCA are in charge of constructing the new social outlet in the 13th century undercroft of St John’s House. The venue will be open to all and the YMCA spoke to 600 youths in order to draw up the scheme for the new cafe.
The venue aims to provide a place for young people to socialise and feel safe.
The YMCA have so far raised £45,000 from public donations and a further £20,000 grant was agreed by the city council at their last budget meeting. Another £85,000 is still needed to begin the build.
Simon Dodd , the YMCA Youth Programme manager is optimistic that the construction work will begin sometime in May due to positive public support.
‘’The support we’ve received from the council has been excellent. We also launched a fund raising appeal in mid November last year and I think we’ve had about £45,000 worth come in from the public.’’

Thursday 18 March 2010

HCJ: Cobbett and Dickens.

William Cobbett
• William Cobbett was born in Farnham, Surrey in 1763 and died in June 1835.
• He worked as a farm labourer in Hampshire, which gave him extensive knowledge about the countryside.
• Cobbett began his career as a journalist in America, working under the name of Peter Porcupine, where he published 12 books criticising American democracy.
• After 20 years abroad, Cobbett returned to England in 1800 and he began to publish the weekly newsletter The Political Register. He first supported the Tories but then became more radical.
• By 1806 he was an advocate of parliamentary reform. Cobbett was not afraid to criticise the government and campaigned against newspaper taxes and government restraints on free speech.
• Cobbett began publishing the Political Register as a pamphlet and it soon had a circulation of 40,000. It became the main newspaper read by the working class.
• Cobbett continued publishing controversial material in the Political Register and was charged with libel on numerous occasions, escaping conviction twice, once by fleeing the country and once by conducting his own defence so successfully the jury had no means to convict him.
• For extracts from Cobbett’s Political Register and other works use the below link. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRcobbett.htm
• Cobbett’s best-known book was Rural Rides.
• He had no time for the Government that taxed farmers or the army whom he said were free loaders, or for the Church and it's tithes. He was nearly 60 when he began Rural Rides.
• It was first published as a serial within The Weekly Political Register, running from 1822 to 1826. It was then later published as a book in 1830.
• At the time of publication Cobbett was a radical anti-corn law campaigner, Cobbett opposed solutions to agricultural troubles that were being addressed within parliament and he believed the industrial revolution was taking precedence over the economy, leaving many farmers financially unstable.
• Cobbett wanted to evaluate the situation and find a solution himself.
• Cobbett believed industrialisation was destroying a rural way of life.
• Cobbett viewed the argument from both a farmer’s and social reformer’s point of view. The book is seen to be a factual document that gives an insight into the lives of those living in the countryside in early nineteenth century.

*For an easy to read format of Rural Rides visit the below link.
http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/contents_page.jsp?t_id=Cobbett

Charles Dickens
• Charles Dickens was born 7th February 1812 and died 9th June 1870.
• He was an English Novelist.
• Dickens was interested in particular times of reform, which can be seen in his works: Oliver Twist related to Benthamite Utilitarian Poor Law, Bleak House has a focus on the Court of Chancery and Nicholas Nickelby criticised Yorkshire schools where pupils were mistreated.
• Dickens was of the belief that the poor should be given decent homes and education, in conjunction with this, his writing attempted to spur the middle classes into action.
• He was continuously disappointed with the law.
• He relied on his reader to take action!

A tale of two perspectives... Rural (Cobbett) vs. Urban (Dickens)
• England fared well out of the French Revolution, however during the Napoleonic War it was very expensive so income tax was introduced to pay for the war effort in 1779.
• British Naval power was absolute, particularly after 1805 and the blockades of the French ports created a boom for British exports, so the British began to build their empire.
• The Transatlantic Triangular Trade was highly profitable for Britain. In the 16th Century one million slaves were transported from Africa to America. This number then increased to three million in the 17th Century and then again to seven million in the 18th Century. The Abolition of Slavery Act in 1833 stopped the Transatlantic Triangular Trade.
• Textiles made up 60% of exports and coal outputs doubled between 1750 and 1800.
• Manchester’s population rapidly increased due to the need for more workers to process raw materials coming into the ports.
• The population rose from 17,000 to 180,000 between 1760 and 1830.
• Marx and Engels held an interest in Manchester's population explosion and poor treatment of its workers as a possible start of a working class revolution.
• Cotton was the key to the industrial revolution. The raw material originated from American slave plantations and was processed in North England, mostly for export.
• Inventions such as the gas light, allowed the process to continue and become more efficient as workers could continue working throughout the night, mostly women and children.
• The end of the war meant the end of the boom and this in turn lead to widespread unemployment and a decrease in wages.
• As response to this, the Government brought in the Corn Laws, which put a tariff on imported grain, to give farmers a better chance. However, this made bread very expensive, which meant many of the poor starved.
• The conditions in towns and cities became dire. Most people lived in bad conditions and diseases such as Cholera were common.
• There was a policy of brutal repression on any sort of dissent and strict penal penalties were effective in the short term.
• Protesters demanded growing industrial towns should have a right to elect MP's, as less than 2% of the population had a vote at the time. 'Rotten Boroughs' had too many MP's whereas Manchester and Leeds had none. Reform Act in 1832.
• The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 meant that bread became cheaper, but this in turn meant that wages could be lowered because workers would be able to survive on less.

Farming
• Enclosures had ended the idea of landholding peasantry- and there was nothing to stop the transfer of the workforce from non-industrial to industrial.
• Population had been rising slowly, or not at all, from approximately 5 million at the end of the 17th century up until the middle of the 18th Century. After 1770 it started to rise considerably, doubling every 50 years.
• Swing Riots - rural labourers began riots across the south of England as they were against the use of advanced technology like threshing machines.

The Poor
• The poor were looked after by the Speenhamland system, which was devised as a means to alleviate the distress caused by high grain prices. Families received extra to top up wages, it varied according to the number of children and the price of bread but the immediate impact of paying this poor rate fell on the landowners of the parish concerned.
• The New Poor Law Act was introduced in 1834 by Bentham. The Act that stated that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other help from the Poor Law Authorities except in a workhouse.
• Bentham believed people would do what was pleasant and not do what was unpleasant. He effectively criminalised the poor by making relief so unpleasant that they would not want it.

Ireland- Act of Union 1801
• The Famine was between 1845 and 1850 - over a million people died of malnutrition and two million emigrated.
• During the Famine, Ireland was a net exporter of food and the export of livestock actually increased. Armed troops had to escort the food to the ports to be exported to England. This increased the famine, leaving the Irish starving to death.

Wednesday 17 March 2010

Winchester Schoolgirl in UK Youth Parliament

A Winchester schoolgirl is taking a seat in the UK Youth Parliament to represent Winchester and Eastleigh.

Felicity Stonehill, aged 15 from The Westgate School in Winchester will join other young people from schools, colleges and youth centres across Hampshire in voting in the November elections.

Martin Tod, Liberal Democrat prospective MP for Winchester praised the Youth Parliament for their work.

''Youth Parliament does quite a good job of making sure young people’s issues are heard, so I think that's a good thing and every part of the country needs to be represented, so I think it's good that Winchester is as well. Personally I think people should get into the mindset of being active citizens and the idea that they can change things and they deserve to be listened to and if that involves people getting involved in the youth council, the youth parliament then that's great.''

Council Plans for New Student Flats

Winchester residents have raised complaints regarding a new block of 400 student flats being built on Milnthorpe Lane in Winchester.

Plans for the build have already been approved by Winchester City Council however the issue has been brought forward once again after neighbours expressed their concerns that not all agreed arrangements were being met.

Part of the plan approved by the council stated that louvers, a special kind of shutter would be fixed to the windows of the new build in order to reduce noise and light pollution. As these are yet to be fitted, the council held a meeting last Thursday to discuss the measures needed to put them in place before students move into the block.

[Audio]

Tuesday 16 March 2010

Venables Prison Recall

A news story which has been impossible to escape my attention over the past week is that of Jon Venables being recalled to prison after breaching his release licence.
The murder of 2 year old James Bulger by Jon Venables and Robert Thompson, aged just 10 at the time, in 1993 was a story that shocked the nation and one which is still sure to provoke the strongest of reactions today. The two boys were found guilty of the murder of James Bulger and served an eight year sentence. Upon their release in 2001, both boys were given new identities and a chance to start again, this in itself was a controversial topic, dividing the public.
Now, aged 27, Jon Venables has been recalled to prison yet the exact reasoning as to why is still yet to be confirmed. I think this is shocking, surely it is in public interest for the details to be released and I feel that the withholding of information shows a sufficient lack of empathy towards James Bulger’s mother- Denise Fergus, not only has she had to live with the fact that her son was brutally murdered and his killers given a second chance at life but now she has the worry that Venables may have caused harm to another. This makes me question whether the boys should ever have been given a second chance at all.
Denise Fergus has expressed further anguish over the handling of the case, as Maggie Atkinson, Children’s Commissioner, suggested Bulger’s killers should not have been prosecuted, as she believes children aged 10 are too young to be tried in an adult court and this age should be raised to 12. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the age at which children can be tried in an adult court is 10 years of age. This is one of the youngest in Europe, bar Scotland where the age is 8.
I feel that in light of the new Venables case, Atkinson’s comments were extremely insensitive and ill-advised and have caused a great deal of grief to Mrs Fergus, who is now having to relive her son’s case from seventeen years ago. Mrs Fergus called for Atkinson to resign or be sacked but no such action has been taken. However, Atkinson’s pleas to increase the age of child prosecution in an adult court were rejected.
Upon reading all the news stories relating to the matter, I have begun to question at what age it is appropriate to prosecute a child. But surely, in the case of Thompson and Venables, they committed a truly horrendous and adult crime, so they should be given the appropriate punishment and prosecuted accordingly. I also question whether it was a mistake to give them a second chance at life, one which Venables seems only too willing to ruin. In my mind, I would agree that aged ten, a child would most definitely know the difference between right and wrong and would have begun to develop an established set of morals, so what would lead two CHILDREN to do something so appalling?
I am also fairly outraged at the lack of information being given to the public over Venables’ breach of licence. As it continues to be kept under wraps, the worst case scenario seems to be assumed. Jack Straw has informed the House of Commons that disclosure of the allegations could prejudice further action against Venables.
Finally I ask myself, how is it there are people willing to defend such a man? Laurence Lee, who defended Venables in the original case said to the BBC, "The pressures on him [Venables] to live this lie and constantly have to lie to make friends and fit in with society, I think are what made him breach his licence." I am hard pressed to find sympathy.

Monday 15 March 2010

Pornography's Place In Parliament

I read an article on the BBC News website on Friday that caught my eye. I was actually trying to educate myself on current political affairs when I saw the headline ‘Female porn director to fight Parliament seat in Kent.’
Anna Arrowsmith, or Anna Span as she is known in the porn industry, has been selected as the prospective Liberal Democrat representative for Gravesham in Kent. Mrs Arrowsmith is a well known female porn director, who is managing director of a leading adult entertainment firm who make porn for women. Mrs Arrowsmith says that she feels that women are under-represented within parliament and stated that the current expenses scandal had sparked up her interest in politics yet again.
Anna Arrowsmith’s background employment has of course caused a fair bit of controversy but should her previous work have an effect on her political reliability? There have been mixed reactions from the public in Kent. Many people feel her ties in the porn industry should not have any impact on her representation within the Lib Dems, however others feel she is an unsuitable role model. It could be argued that although many see the porn industry as distasteful, she is well respected in the trade and became managing director of a major company. A success in her own right.
Lib Dem leader Nick Clegg agreed that her job was not his ‘cup of tea,’ but supported her place within parliament. Surely political parties today look for a diverse range of people to represent their views and previous employment should not enter into the matter to a certain extent.
If Anna Arrowsmith is as driven and motivated as she claims and shows consistent compassion towards local issues then the people of Gravesham should be happy to accept her as a representative.

The original article can be viewed via the below link:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/8563214.stm

Tuesday 9 March 2010

Final Funding Needed For Youth Café

Young people living in and around Winchester will soon have access to a new youth cafe, as the campaign to raise an additional £150,000 for the build nears its halfway mark.

Winchester YMCA are in charge of constructing the new social outlet in the 13th century undercroft of St John’s House. The venue will be open to all and the YMCA spoke to 600 youths in order to draw up the scheme for the new cafe.

The venue aims to provide a place for young people to socialise and feel safe.

The YMCA have so far raised £45,000 from public donations and a further £20,000 grant was agreed by the city council at their last budget meeting. A further £85,000 is still needed to begin the build.

Simon Dodd, the YMCA Youth Programme manager is optimistic that the construction work will begin sometime in May due to positive public support.
''The support we’ve received from the council has been excellent. We also launched a fund raising appeal in mid November last year and I think we’ve had about £45,000 worth come in from the public.’’

Wednesday 3 March 2010

HCJ. Kant and Hegel: German Idealism

German Idealism
• 18th Century philosophy was dominated by British empiricists (the theory that knowledge is gained through experience), with the key philosophers of this movement including Locke, Berkeley and Hume.
• Kant, Hegel and Fichte went on to develop a new kind of philosophy which shaped German Idealism.
• The subjectivist tendency which had begun with Descartes was continued to new extremes (knowledge and value are limited by subjective experience, or in more extreme form, the existence of every object depends on a person’s subjective awareness of it).
• Common characteristics in German idealism include critique of knowledge (this was strongly emphasized by Kant).
• There was an emphasis on mind over matter, which leads to the assumption that only mind exists.
• There was a rejection of utilitarian ethics.
• German idealism adopted a more scholastic tone which was not seen in early French and English philosophy.
• Similarities to the romantic movement.

Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804)
• Kant was born in the East Prussian city of Konigsberg, where he also studied at University.
• He worked at the University as a professor and a tutor for more than 40 years.
• Considered one of the greatest modern philosophers, his importance is easily recognisable.
• Kant is seen as the founder of German Idealism.
• He was influenced by Rousseau and Hume.
• Rousseau made more of an impact on Kant. Kant is said to have read ‘Emile’ several times in order to understand its matter because he claimed the beauty of Rousseau’s style to be distracting.
• Although he was brought up as a pietist (emphasis on piety, devotion and good Christian life), he was a Liberal in both politics and theology.
• He believed in democracy and had a love of freedom, exemplified in his saying; ‘There can be nothing more dreadful than that the actions of a man should be subject to the will of another.’
• Kant’s early works are much more scientific than philosophical. He wrote a theory on earthquakes and a treatise on wind. He had an interest in physical geography.
• The most important of his scientific writings was ‘General Natural History and the Theory of the Heavens,’ which was first published in 1755. Sets out the origin of the solar system, although some of it appears to be fantasy based with claims of life forms on every planet. It was not well supported scientifically.
• Following what seemed to be a current trend at the time, Kant also wrote a treatise on the sublime and the beautiful. Night is sublime, day is beautiful, the sea is sublime, the sky is beautiful and so on.
The Critique of Pure Reason
• Kant’s most important work was ‘The Critique of Pure Reason,’ first published in 1781.
• The purpose of this work is to attempt to explain that although our knowledge cannot excel our experience, it is in part a priori (an understanding derived by logic without facts).
• Kant goes onto explain that the part of our knowledge which is a priori, is not only defined by logic but also what cannot be included in logic or assumed from it.
• Kant highlights the differences between an analytic proposition and a synthetic proposition. The differences between a priori and empirical proposition were also outlined. An empirical proposition is knowledge gained from a sense of self perception, either our own or that of someone we trust. History, geography and the laws of science are of this sort.
• A priori proposition, though it is extracted from experience, it is usually drawn on from another experience.
Kant’s Theory of Space and Time
• Kant explained that objects of perception- things that we actually see- are due to both our own perception of them and external things.
• What appears to us in our perception (phenomenon) consists of two parts. The sensation- due to the object and the form of the phenomenon, that due to our perceptive apparatus. The latter part refers to a constant knowledge which we carry with us, and it is much like a priori in that it is not dependent on experience.
• In order to prove that space and time are a form of priori, Kant puts forward two types of argument; metaphysical (philosophical study of being and knowing), Kant looks at the nature of time and space) and epistemological/ transcendental (branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope, Kant looks at the possibility of pure mathematics).

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
• Hegel was born in Stuttgart 1770
• Much of his work would never have existed if it were not for Kant, although he was often critical of Kant’s work.
• His influence has been great and not only in Germany. His philosophy of history deeply affected political theory.
• He taught philosophy at Jena and Nuremburg and went on to be a professor at Heidelberg, finally taught at Berlin.
• In his later life Hegel was a patriotic Prussian but in his youth he despised Prussia and strongly admired Napoleon.
• Hegel had an early interest in mysticism, which continued to inspire his belief in ‘the unreality of separateness.’ Looking at all the units which make up the world as a whole, Hegel ventured to say that each unit has a greater or lesser degree of reality. Its reality can only truly be viewed when looked at as a whole.
• This view leads to a disbelief in the reality of time and space, as they involve separateness and multiplicity.
• Hegel stated that real is rational and rational is real. However Hegel’s ‘real’ differs from that of an empiricist. He says that what an empiricist perceives to be fact must be irrational, facts can only become rational once viewed as a whole.
• ‘The whole’ which to me appears extremely complex, is described by Hegel as ‘the absolute.’ The absolute is spiritual.
• There are two things which distinguish Hegel from other men with a metaphysical outlook:
1. He places emphasis on logic
2. Dialectic (system of reasoning)- consisting of thesis, antithesis and synthesis
• Hegel sees logic to be the same thing as metaphysics (philosophical study of being and knowing), believes it to be self contradictory. For example the theory of Parmenides. Nothing can be spherical unless it has a boundary and it cannot have a boundary unless there is something outside of it, even if it empty space. So if one were to assume that the universe is spherical is would be self contradictory.
• The underlying assumption that nothing is true unless it is about reality as a whole still shows a basis in traditional logic. (see uncle example in Bertrand Russell)
• Everything except the Whole has a connection to outside things; this implies nothing true can be said about separate things. The Whole, which Hegel considered to be a unity, is the only thing which is real.
• The above is not directly specified in Hegel’s system but more so implied.
• ‘Reason is the conscious certainty of being all reality.’ A singular person on their own is not quite real, however their participation in reality as a whole is what defines them as real.
• The essence of the Absolute Idea is basically pure thought thinking about pure thought.